Running Physiology Essays - Oxygen, Diving Medicine,

Running Physiology The Effects Of Altitude On Human Physiology Changes in altitude have a profound effect on the human body. The body attempts to maintain a state of homeostasis or balance to ensure the optimal operating environment for its complex chemical systems. Any change from this homeostasis is a change away from the optimal operating environment. The body attempts to correct this imbalance. One such imbalance is the effect of increasing altitude on the body's ability to provide adequate oxygen to be utilized in cellular respiration. With an increase in elevation, a typical occurrence when climbing mountains, the body is forced to respond in various ways to the changes in external environment. Foremost of these changes is the diminished ability to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. If the adaptive responses to this stressor are inadequate the performance of body systems may decline dramatically. If prolonged the results can be serious or even fatal. In looking at the effect of altitude on body functioning we first must understand what occurs in the external environment at higher elevations and then observe the important changes that occur in the internal environment of the body in response. HIGH ALTITUDE In discussing altitude change and its effect on the body mountaineers generally define altitude according to the scale of high (8,000 - 12,000 feet), very high (12,000 - 18,000 feet), and extremely high (18,000+ feet), (Hubble, 1995). A common misperception of the change in external environment with increased altitude is that there is decreased oxygen. This is not correct as the concentration of oxygen at sea level is about 21% and stays relatively unchanged until over 50,000 feet (Johnson, 1988). What is really happening is that the atmospheric pressure is decreasing and subsequently the amount of oxygen available in a single breath of air is significantly less. At sea level the barometric pressure averages 760 mmHg while at 12,000 feet it is only 483 mmHg. This decrease in total atmospheric pressure means that there are 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath at this altitude compared to sea level (Princeton, 1995). HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The human respiratory system is responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and transferring it to the cells where it can be utilized for cellular activities. It also removes carbon dioxide from the body. The respiratory system draws air initially either through the mouth or nasal passages. Both of these passages join behind the hard palate to form the pharynx. At the base of the pharynx are two openings. One, the esophagus, leads to the digestive system while the other, the glottis, leads to the lungs. The epiglottis covers the glottis when swallowing so that food does not enter the lungs. When the epiglottis is not covering the opening to the lungs air may pass freely into and out of the trachea. The trachea sometimes called the windpipe branches into two bronchi which in turn lead to a lung. Once in the lung the bronchi branch many times into smaller bronchioles which eventually terminate in small sacs called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that the actual transfer of oxygen to the blood takes place. The alveoli are shaped like inflated sacs and exchange gas through a membrane. The passage of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood is dependent on three major factors: 1) the partial pressure of the gases, 2) the area of the pulmonary surface, and 3) the thickness of the membrane (Gerking, 1969). The membranes in the alveoli provide a large surface area for the free exchange of gases. The typical thickness of the pulmonary membrane is less than the thickness of a red blood cell. The pulmonary surface and the thickness of the alveolar membranes are not directly affected by a change in altitude. The partial pressure of oxygen, however, is directly related to altitude and affects gas transfer in the alveoli. GAS TRANSFER To understand gas transfer it is important to first understand something about the behavior of gases. Each gas in our atmosphere exerts its own pressure and acts independently of the others. Hence the term partial pressure refers to the contribution of each gas to the entire pressure of the atmosphere. The average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is approximately 760 mmHg. This means that the pressure is great enough to support a column of mercury (Hg) 760 mm high. To figure the partial pressure of oxygen you start with the percentage of oxygen present in the atmosphere which is about 20%. Thus oxygen

A Written Analysis on Why I Write by George Orwell Essays

A Written Analysis on Why I Write by George Orwell Essays A Written Analysis on Why I Write by George Orwell Paper A Written Analysis on Why I Write by George Orwell Paper Essay Topic: George orwell George Orwell’s 1946 essay ‘Why I Write’ is enshrined with a set of innate values adhered to and advocated by Orwell himself. In recounting his personal journey in becoming a writer, Orwell enlists the underlying ideals justifying his initial motives for writing. Subsequently, it is the representation of deeply held ideals such as the innate personal connection to writing, the impact of context on a writer, the value of writing and the reasons for writing that captivate audiences and underpin the meaning of Orwell’s essay. The eudemonistic virtues exhorted by Orwell as expressed through the essay form therefore serve to represent the values and ideals shaped by his context, that are eminent within his writings. The unfailing sense of personal connection Orwell bears to writing pervades throughout the essay, and subsequently captivates the audience. Orwell’s use of personal childhood anecdotes, of where he felt â€Å"isolated and undervalued† evokes a personal connection of sympathy from the reader, and thus signifies the development of Orwell as a writer. From the opening anecdotes, where Orwell alludes to the Greek playwright ‘Aristophanes’ and the English poet ‘William Blake’ it is event that ‘writing’ remained an innate component of George Orwell’s identity and that attempts to suppress or neglect this passion would be â€Å"outraging† his true nature. Orwell argues that the essence of his writing stems from personal experience and the innate connection of he bore to literature from an early age. However, whilst Orwell does argue that writing itself must involve a self-driven personal engagement, he concedes that the development of language is influenced and shaped by other writers. Therefore, the use of personal anecdotes underpins the innate, personal connection that Orwell shared with writing and thus captivates the audience. The exploration of context in shaping an author’s thoughts and writings are central concerns dealt with by Orwell within the essay. Orwell’s primary motivation, albeit obscured and categorically denied in the opening of the essay, is the political cause. Orwell concludes the essay in stating that â€Å"where I lacked a political purpose that I wrote lifeless books entences without meaning, decorative adjectives and humbug generally. † However, Orwell laments the political motivation of his works to the revolutionising political sphere of his own context. The purpose of the poem in the essay however, is more so to illustrate the lingering uncertainties of war and conflict that plagued Orwell’s time. The poem reflects on the certainties of the past, whereby imagery through â€Å"A happy vicar I might have been, two hundred years ago† illustrates the changing paradigms of religion, and its subsequent impetus for conflict. The poem is indicative of the â€Å"evil time† and increasing political tensions of Orwell’s context, and places his works into perspective. Therefore in exploring his personal development as a writer, Orwell further illustrates the impact of context in shaping a writer’s works creating a sense of personal engagement with the reader. Orwell’s presentation on the value of writing through the essay establishes an emotional connection that captivates the reader. The use of imagery, through the comparison of ‘good prose’ to a ‘windowpane’ underpins the augmented message enlisted in Orwell’s Why I Write. The image of the windowpane serves as a symbol for writing as a connection between the reader, the writer and the text. Constituents of a good prose allow for the writer to connect and see clearly through the issues of the text whilst similarly, the reader is able to maintain an understanding of the writer’s motivation and reasoning for the nature of his/her works. Therefore, Orwell concludes his essay with the argument that writing needs to be able to find a sense of commonality between the reader and the writer, with his ‘great motives for writing’ providing a conceptual framework in which such a connection can be fostered. Through the essay, ‘Why I Write’ Orwell constructs a balanced tone that is both anecdotal and reflective in order to crystallise and reduce any complications in meaning. The use of a particularly precise, authentic voice stems from the actual purpose of this essay which essentially was to provide a justification to the strong and confronting political-willed nature of his works. His outspoken fervour of democratic socialism, a belief manifested from his personal disillusionment to the institutions of governance of his time causes him to maintain a concise and direct prose, in order to present an unequivocal justification for the nature of his works. The authentic directness of his prose is encapsulated in sentiments such as â€Å"I did try very hard to tell the whole truth without violating my literary instincts†. The manner of his tone illustrates Orwell’s attempts to portray his character as one of integrity towards the literary cause. Thus, Orwell attempts to maintain integrity and honesty whilst fostering an emotional connection with the reader in order to propagate his ideals of the motivation of writing. Orwell’s justification for the reasons for writing ensures that he is levelled with the reader, enabling his ideals to captivate the audience. Orwell’s classification of the ‘great motives for writing’ serves as an appreciative framework from which the reader is then able to interpret literature. Orwell felt as though whilst an author maintains a connection to his/her works, such a connection may not be endeared by the reader. Therefore, Orwell classifies the ‘motives for writing’ in order to re-establish the connection between the author, the text and the reader by providing a conceptual framework serving as the basing point for an informed interpretation of the writer’s background, and reasons for writing. A secondary purpose of this classification predominantly focuses on the ideals of writing as a universal connector of people. In conclusion, the structure of the essay in recounting a chronological and biographical development of George Orwell as a writer allows for Orwell to express his views in an unequivocal manner. Orwell seeks to foster a connection between the audience, and his concerns through the range of techniques he applies through the essay form. Subsequently, Orwell’s representation of his innate underlying values and ideals are what captivates the audience and establishes the emotional connection between the reader, the writer and the text.

The Experiences of Nursing Students with Dyslexia Essay

The Experiences of Nursing Students with Dyslexia - Essay Example The work under study discussed the plight of nursing students that live with dyslexia. As one of the preliminary signs of believability of the report (Ryan, Coughlan & Cronin, 2007), it is well laid out, avoiding any unnecessary jargon, applying the use of good grammar and hence very believable to the reader. The title of the work is fully reflective of the content of the report, it displays an element of conciseness, clarity, and accuracy, given the content of the paper. The author of this report is credible, which is another requirement for believability (Gomm, 2004). Caroline Ridley is an expert in her field, given that she is a Senior Lecturer on adult nursing at the School of Health, Psychology and Social Care, at the Manchester Metropolitan University. The abstract of the paper accurately outlines the key components of the report, bringing out the aim of the study, the methodology used, the findings of the study and finally the conclusion of the study. Such are the components o f a good abstract (Ellis, 2013). Ridley’s (2011) work on pre-registration nursing students is backed by a clearly outlined rationale for undertaking the research. The author points out that dyslexia is a prevalent disability among the student population, which has warranted studies on the subject. She points out that there is limited research on healthcare practitioners that are suffering from dyslexia, despite the high rate of prevalence of these. The literature review conducted by the author is quite comprehensive. She applies a unique blend of old and recent literature on the topic, that is, by reviewing Shuler (1990) and Shallenberger (1993), and then going ahead to review a wide variety of more recently completed works such as that by Goode (2007) and Hartley et al. (2008). The literature review is satisfactory towards the philosophical underpinnings of the study (Ryan, Coughlan & Cronin, 2007), that is, it adequately presents some of the issues faced by nursing students with dyslexia. For example, according to Morris and Turnbull (2006), these students are subjected to attitudinal boundaries by others around them. Dale and Taylor (2001) point out effects such as frustration and low self-esteem among these dyslexic students. The literature review is able to amply fulfill its objectives of bringing out some of the issues that dyslexic medical practitioners have to contend with. Ridley (2011) gives the aim of her study as ‘to explore the experiences of pre-registration nursing students with dyslexia at one university.’ This aim is clearly stated, bringing important factors such as the student population under study and the factor under study (Kumar, 2010). The aim is consistent with the research question, which is to highlight the experiences of nursing students that have dyslexia. Ethically, the research is on par with the standards set for research (Polit & Beck, 2011). These standards require that participants are made fully aware of the nature of the study (Polit & Beck, 2011).  

Health Reform Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Reform - Research Paper Example Preskitt (2008) indicates that Clinton’s health reform plan is one that not only affected patients but also other service providers and physicians.. First, studies indicate that about 36 million Americans were uninsured at that time (Preskitt, 2008). This percentage of Americans comprises of the poor and majority depended on aid from other sources. On a realistic point of analysis, it would be extremely tasking for Clinton’s policy to apply among such population brackets. This can be discussed on a cost constraint point of view, since the available resources were not well reorganized. Universal recognition not being the centre of the focus of Clinton’s reform plan, failure of the plan was indeed in the pipeline. Brady & Kessler (2009) indicate that Clinton’s Health Care Reform failed for the reason that this plan was more inclined towards promoting a market for insurance on a long term basis. The administration was of the opinion that expanding then public health sector would be very expensive for the government. Long term insurance care was on a great extent left for the private sector. Investors were at an advantage that was geared towards coming up with a market for private employers, in terms of provision of long term care. The costs of health care rose tremendously, provision of long term care was then laid on the line. Preskitt (2008) indicates that Clinton’s health plan did not receive public support both from the liberals and conservatives. Democrats were opposed to the fact that none of the constituencies was fully for the program. For instance, the aged feared the cutting down of Medicare and nothing would do good to them in return (Starr, 1995). The high costs of health plans were also expected to be expensive; thus, taxing to the common citizens. Generally, Clinton had no back up to support the policies. It is in line to this argument that Oberlander (2002) argues that Clinton’s health plan would have been planned and

Strategic Management Case Analysis section on how to prepare a Research Paper

Strategic Management Case Analysis section on how to prepare a strategic case analysis. (IP 4) - Research Paper Example It has been subject to serious design level issues wherein product recalls were traced back to the to the faults in design and manufacturing processes of Toyota. This suggests that its operational weaknesses may be on the rise during the recent past. Ford as a part of automobile industry is facing stiff social challenge of improving its image. There is a general perception within the general public that car automakers are thriving on tax payers’ money. Overall market demand is emerging from US market. Ford’s primary demographics is in North American market besides it serves EU market also. Its overall product range serve both high end and low end market. In order to overcome the weakness of low consumer demand, Ford can enter into small car manufacturing. It needs to improve its R&D efforts to produce more cost effective vehicles which can serve the mass market at the global market (Nilsson-Witell, Antoni, & Dahlgaard, 2005). It needs to increase its R&D budget and engage into further improving its fuel efficient cars. In order to overcome it dependence on two markets, Toyota need to establish its manufacturing and distribution facilities in other emerging markets specially in India and other growing markets where demand for low cost fuel efficient cars can be enormous. It can expand into these markets through effective quality management. (Taddese & Osada, 2011) It needs to enter into market development process in a way which can ensure its presence in optimal market locations across the whole globe. Nilsson-Witell, L., Antoni, M., & Dahlgaard, J. (2005). Continuous improvement in product development: Improvement programs and quality principles". International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management,, 22(8),

Facilitating Obstetric Services for Pregnant Women

Facilitating Obstetric Services for Pregnant Women Socio-cultural INFULENCES AND Access TO Basic Obstetric Care (BOC) Abstract Although pregnancy and childbirth are not of medical origin, respectively, they signify normal physiological events. Women who are pregnant often anticipate satisfactory childbirth outcomes, with no complications during the birthing process. Maternal and Child health is achieved through comprehensive obstetric interventions. While basic obstetric care is available for pregnant women, socio-cultural beliefs are effective as well to convince them not to access appropriate care during obstetric emergencies. Therefore, this essay explains why pregnant women are often unable to receive care they need and the benefits of accessing essential obstetric care in health facilities. Socio-cultural Beliefs and Childbirth Practices Whilst there are many cultures throughout the world, every culture is distinct and varies considerably from one another. Culture is viewed as a main pillar that clearly defines ethnic identity, autonomy, and the tribal dominance of a society (Bravo Noya, 2014). Its influence is fascinating by the way certain skills, knowledge, and practices are observed and learnt over a period of time to maintain and preserve its existence (Sherry Ornstein, 2014). Similarly, different societies have profound cultural beliefs and interpretations in relation to pregnancy and childbirth practices. Though birthing is an individual occasion, it is also an important societal experience that impacts women’s perceptions and certain beliefs between respective societies (Kaphle, Hancock, Newman, 2013). For instance, during pregnancy, women strictly observe their cultural norms and â€Å"taboos† by avoiding certain foods or diets. In general, a particular food that is abundant in protein is avoided due to their mutual belief(s) that may lead to congenital deformed babies, resembling features of food eaten, or their babies may grow big thereby complicating the second stage of labour (Kuzma, et al., 2013). Cultural influences are persuasive, and thus, prevent pregnant women to access essential maternal health care. Socio-cultural Beliefs and Access to Basic Obstetric Care (BOC) In spite of the fact that there are many different societies, they are often classified into two broad kinds of societies; patrilineal or matrilineal. Patrilineal society is more common and influential. Patrilineal societies qualify men to own the land, properties, make critical decisions, and decide on family size (Koian, 2010). Land is considered as an important asset for families in ethnic societies. This is why, in patrilineal societies, men would often want to have more male children in their family to inherit the land, and also to take full responsibility during their old age (Tao, 2014). In contrast, women’s responsibilities are often associated with domestic duties, such as cooking, gardening, childbearing and childrearing. On the other hand, basic medical ailments and maternal health services (for example, Family Planning) are viewed as insignificant to certain societies, and are perceived to only interfere with their cultural beliefs (Kaphle, Hancock, Newman, 2013). Moreover, any pregnancy or childbirth-related complications are considered abnormal, and the victim (pregnant woman) is condemned for disobedience; as a result, she is cursed by ancestral evil forces (Kuzma, et al., 2013). Such cultural beliefs often have subsequent impact on pregnant women accessing and utilising vital antenatal and obstetric care (Boerleider, Wiegers, Mannien, Francke, Deville, 2013). Traditional Birth Attendance (TBA) and their Experiences To strengthen maternal health care, emphasis is placed on pregnant women accessing health facilities for supervised care and deliveries from Skilled Birth Attendants (SBAs). These are qualified health professionals (such as; midwives, nurses and doctors) who are able to manage pregnancies and childbirths, and detect possible obstetric complications threatening to the mother and her unborn baby (Uzt, Siddiqui, Adegoke, Broeke, 2013). In many societies, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) are available, usually old women who are considered skilful and knowledgeable in managing childbirths. Their competency of practice has become women’s first choice of contact when in labour. Also, their respectful approach toward mothers, irrespective of their social status, age, parity, and reasonable labour fees, have continued to influence women’s perception of positive childbirth experiences under their care (Akpabio, Edet, Etifit, Bassey, 2014). Unfortunately, TBAs still require essential evidence-based knowledge; they need adequate emergency obstetric skills and kits to manage during labour and birth emergencies. Their performing (birthing) roles were observed, and acquired only through other experienced TBAs. Yet, pregnant women still forgo formal deliveries to seek assistance from TBAs. Even some who often attend antenatal clinics still prefer TBAs during labour. Such care outside the scope of professional practice results in high rates of preventable maternal deaths (Akpabio, Edet, Etifit, Bassey, 2014). Pregnancy and childbirth experiences can be life-threatening without the presence of SBAs. Hence, it is necessary for pregnant mothers to seek formal support, and care in health care settings where health care providers, and essential life-saving equipment are available. Health Care Providers’ Attitudes and Approaches Health Care Providers have primary responsibilities in providing health care effectively to their patients (women) without favouritism, injustice, harassment, and discrimination due to their socio-cultural attributes. One of the reason that affects pregnant women in relation to seeking a health centre birth is the â€Å"maltreatment† they receive from health care providers. Such unethical treatment in general includes professional negligence, abusive language, discrimination, and interventions without granting permission (Moyer, Adongo, Aborigo, Hodgson, Engmann, 2014). They feel that the environment is not conducive for them. Thus, the fear of ill treatment from health care providers (especially, midwives and other female health workers) often discourages women from accessing health care to deliver their babies (Essendi, Mills, Fotso, 2010). The attitudes and approaches of health care providers must be facilitated in such a friendly manner so as to encourage midwife/nurse-t o-mother relationships to achieve optimal maternal outcomes. Another reason that often prevents pregnant women opting for hospital births is their fear of health workers’ keeping their placentas for disposal (without giving the placentas to them). Some women often use placentas to execute traditional ceremonials, and are concerned it will be difficult for them to take their placentas home. Such deprivation becomes a hindrance for some of them to access supervised delivery where appropriate and essential (Moyer, Adongo, Aborigo, Hodgson, Engmann, 2014). For that reason, establishing rapport and providing empathetic care and a compassionate attitude is expected. Transcultural conflicts in health are precluded when care is integrated harmoniously without cultural interference. Conclusion In conclusion, the emphasis on facilitating obstetric services for pregnant women performs an essential role in strengthening maternal and child health. Improving accessibility and reinforcement at all levels of the health care system is of paramount importance for obstetric services to function effectively. Professional conduct during the care is needed while as much as possible, accommodating socio-cultural attributes to attain best possible outcomes. Also, comprehensive community-based programs by health care providers relating to maternal health, has the potential to connect any existing socio-cultural barriers, and allow women to freely utilize obstetric care when necessary. Bibliography Akpabio, I., Edet, O., Etifit, R., Bassey, G. (2014). Womens Preference for Traditional Birth Attendants and Modern Health Care Practioners in Akpabuyo Community of Cross River State, Nigeria. Health Care for Women International, 35:1, 100-109. Boerleider, A., Wiegers, T., Mannien, J., Francke, A., Deville, W. (2013). Factors affecting the Use of Prenatal Care by Non-western Women in Industrialized Western Countries: A Systemic Review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 13:81, 1471-2393. Bravo, I., Noya, M. (2014). Culture in Prenatal Development: Parental Attitudes, Availability of Care, Expectations, Values and Nutrition. Child Youth Care Forum. 43, 521-538. Essendi, H., Mills, S., Fotso, C. (2010). Barriers to Formal Emergency Obstetric Care Services Utilization. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol.88, Suppl.2, S356-S369. Faisal, A., Tofayel, A. (2014). Influence of the Socio-cultural Factors in Health-seeking Behaviour of Women during Pregnancy in Rural Bangladesh . Journal of Exclusion Studies, Vol.4, Issue:1, 1-11. Kaphle, S., Hancock, H., Newman, L. (2013). Childbirth Traditions and Cultural Perceptions of Safety in Nepal: Critical Spaces to ensure the Survival of Mothers and Newborns in Remote Mountain Villages. Midwifery 29, 1173-1181. Koian, R. (2010). Women in Patrilineal and Matrilineal Societies in Melanesia. Madang, PNG: Bismark Ramu Group. Kosum, Z., Yurdakul, M. (2012). Factors Affecting the Use of Emergency Obstetric Care among Pregnant Women with Antenatal Bleeding. Midwifery 29, 440-446. Kuzma, J., Paofa, D., Kaugle, N., Catherina, T., Samiak, S., Kumei, E. (2013). Food Taboos and Traditional Customs Among Pregnant Women in Papua New Guinea: Missed Opportunity for Education in Antenatal Clinics. Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal, Vol.19, 1-11. Moyer, C., Adongo, P., Aborigo, R., Hodgson, A., Engmann, C. (2014). They treat you like you are not a human being: Maltreatment during Labour and Delivery in Rural Northern Ghana. Midwifery 30, 262-268. Sherry, S., Ornstein, A. (2014). The Preservation and Transmission of Cultural Values and Ideals: Challenges Facing Immigrant Families. Psychoanalytic Inquiry: A Topical Journal for Mental Health Professionals, 34:5, 452-462. Tao, L. (2014). Why do women interact with their parents more often then men? The demonstration effect vs. biological effect. The Social Science Journal, 1-11. Uzt, B., Siddiqui, G., Adegoke, A., Broeke, N. (2013). Definitions and Roles of a Skilled Birth Attendant: A Mapping Exercise from South-Asian Countries. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica (AOGS), 1-7. Yankuzo, K. (2014). Impact of Globalization on the Traditional African Cultures. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 4, 1-8. McKenzie Maviso1

Twelve Who Ruled Essay -- essays research papers

Twelve Who Ruled Book Review The year of terror is one of the most complex and misunderstood periods in the French Revolution. Palmer, in his book, Twelve Who Ruled, however, takes this period and skillfully turns it into a written masterpiece. The book is narrated from the point of view of someone with an omniscient knowledge of the subject matter, who is reflecting back on the period from the outside. The book tells the story of a brief moment in history when twelve men (Robespierre, Barere, Saint Just, Couthon, Lindet, Carnot, Saint-Andre, Prieur, Varenne, Herbois, Scholles, and Duvernois) ruled France; even though they were technically under the control of the Convention. Palmer begins by giving the reader an overview of who the twelve men were before they became rulers of a nation. He then goes on to discuss the purpose of the Committee of Public Safety, and the organizational structure of the terror. Palmer then smoothly moves on to discuss the "foreign plot" and how the committee dealt with it. He goes on to explain the "Doom at Lyons" by giving a very detailed description of the events that went on there. Palmer then procedes to depict the missions at Alsace and Brittany. In the last few chapters of the book, he slowly and carefully shows the winding down and eventual collapse of the Committee of Public Safety's power. Throughout this book, Palmer does an exquisite job painting the collage of the twelve men's ride to the top upon the horse of the committee of Public Safety. He wonderfully combines each man's individual actions with the more general problems that the Committee of Public Safety confronted. He discusses in detail the policies adopted to defend the Revolution, as well as how and why they were put into effect. The layout of the chapters in the book is extremely logical; they are basically put in chronological order. The fact that Palmer takes the time to give a full historical background of the twelve men shows that he wanted this book to be accessable to people who held no prior knowledge of the subject or time period. He gives a very lurid account of the most influential people on the committee, - namely Robespierre, Varenne, Carnot, Saint Andre, and Saint Just. In the first pages of the book,... ... they would not normally have acted. Due to the effectiveness of Palmer's presentation of the terror, the reader might get the idea that if he were involved in the Revolution, he might be afraid to speak up and voice his opinion. This is due to the fact that it might upset or oppose any person in power who might overhear what he said. These are the psychological repricutions of the terror. In his book Twelve Who Ruled, Palmer eloquently writes this narrative, "weaving the biographies of the twelve into the history of their time," and provides a coherent and convincing explanation of the terror. The book is not only educational for someone interested in the time period when these twelve men ruled the nation of France, but it is also enjoyable from the perspective of a person reading the book solely for interest in revolutions and how they affect the people who are involved in them. The book deals with a brief period of time during the French Revolution, namely the year of terror. The book ventures to interpret the foundations and rationale for the terror and Palmer illustrates his speculations on the subject through gracious, flowing writing.